Introduction to Psychology

Introduction to Psychology

Instructions:

• Define in your own words the following concepts related to memory and cognition:
  • age-related positivity effect
  • anterograde amnesia
  • chunking
  • consolidation
  • constructive process
  • distributed practice
  • elaborative rehearsal
  • encoding
  • encoding-specificity principle
  • encoding, storage, and retrieval (ESR) model
  • episodic memory
  • explicit/declarative memory
  • flashbulb memory (FBM)
  • implicit/nondeclarative memory
  • levels of processing model
  • long-term memory (LTM)
  • long-term potentiation (LTP)
  • maintenance rehearsal
  • massed practice
  • memory
  • misinformation effect
  • mnemonic
  • parallel distributed processing (PDP) model
  • proactive interference
  • repression
  • retrieval
  • retrieval cues
  • retroactive interference
  • retrograde amnesia
  • semantic memory
  • sensory memory
  • serial-position effect
  • short-term memory (STM)
  • source amnesia
  • storage
  • three-stage memory model
  • tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
  • working memory
• Develop a diagram in which you explain the Three-Stage Memory Model.
• What are the four (4) major memory models? Explain them.
• Explain the Encoding Storage and Retrieval (ESR) Model vs. a Computer.

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Introduction to Psychology

1. Definitions:

• Age-Related Positivity Effect: The tendency for older adults to prioritize and remember positive information over negative information due to emotional regulation strategies that develop with age.
• Anterograde Amnesia: A type of memory impairment where an individual is unable to form new memories after a specific event or injury, while older memories remain intact.
• Chunking: A memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing information into smaller, manageable units, allowing for easier encoding and retrieval.
• Consolidation: The process by which memories become stable and more resistant to interference, typically occurring over time as information is transferred from short-term to long-term memory.
• Constructive Process: The mental process through which individuals actively reconstruct memories by filling in gaps or adding details based on prior knowledge, beliefs, and expectations.
• Distributed Practice: A learning strategy that involves spacing out study sessions over time, which enhances long-term retention compared to massed practice.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: A memory technique that involves actively relating new information to existing knowledge or concepts, facilitating deeper encoding and better retention.
• Encoding: The initial process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored and retrieved by the brain.
• Encoding-Specificity Principle: The idea that retrieval of information is most effective when the conditions present during encoding match those present during retrieval.
• Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (ESR) Model: A theoretical framework that describes memory as involving three main processes: encoding (inputting information), storage (retaining information), and retrieval (accessing stored information).
• Episodic Memory: A type of long-term memory that stores personal experiences and specific events along with contextual details such as time and place.
• Explicit/Declarative Memory: Conscious, intentional memory that involves the recall of factual information and personal experiences.
• Flashbulb Memory (FBM): Vivid and emotionally charged memories of significant events that are often retained with great detail, despite the passage of time.
• Implicit/Nondeclarative Memory: Unconscious memory that involves the retention of skills, habits, and learned associations without conscious awareness.
• Levels of Processing Model: A model of memory that suggests the depth of processing at encoding determines the ease of retrieval, with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better retention.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): The relatively permanent storage system that holds vast amounts of information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely.
• Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): A process whereby repeated stimulation of certain neurons increases the likelihood of their firing, believed to be a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.
• Maintenance Rehearsal: A shallow form of rehearsal involving the repetition of information without much analysis or elaboration, typically leading to only short-term retention.
• Massed Practice: A learning strategy that involves cramming or consolidating study sessions into a short period, often resulting in poorer long-term retention compared to distributed practice.
• Memory: The mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over time, crucial for learning, adaptation, and decision-making.
• Misinformation Effect: The phenomenon where exposure to misleading information after an event can distort one’s memory of the event, leading to inaccurate recall.
• Mnemonic: A memory aid or technique designed to enhance encoding and retrieval by providing cues or strategies for organizing information.
• Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: A computational model of memory and cognition that suggests information is processed simultaneously across interconnected neural networks, emphasizing parallel processing and distributed representation.
• Proactive Interference: The interference that occurs when previously learned information disrupts the recall of newly learned information.
• Repression: A defense mechanism where unpleasant or anxiety-provoking memories are unconsciously blocked from awareness to prevent psychological discomfort.
• Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness for use in the present moment.
• Retrieval Cues: Stimuli or cues that aid in the retrieval of stored information by triggering associated memories or concepts.
• Retroactive Interference: The interference that occurs when newly learned information disrupts the recall of previously learned information.
• Retrograde Amnesia: A type of memory impairment where an individual loses access to memories formed before a specific event or injury, while new memories can still be formed.
• Semantic Memory: A type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge, concepts, and facts about the world, independent of personal experience.
• Sensory Memory: The initial stage of memory that briefly holds sensory information from the environment in its raw form, allowing for further processing.
• Serial-Position Effect: The tendency to recall items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list more easily than those in the middle, influenced by the serial order of presentation.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): The temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short duration, typically around 20-30 seconds unless rehearsed or encoded further.
• Source Amnesia: A type of memory error where an individual remembers information but forgets where or how they learned it, leading to misattribution of the source.
• Storage: The process of maintaining encoded information over time in memory, involving both short-term and long-term storage systems.
• Three-Stage Memory Model: A theoretical framework proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, suggesting that memory involves three main stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon: The temporary inability to retrieve a known word or piece of information from memory, accompanied by a feeling of familiarity and the sense that the information is just out of reach.
• Working Memory: A limited-capacity system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks such as problem-solving and decision-making.

2. Diagram: Three-Stage Memory Model

[Diagram here]

3. Major Memory Models:

The four major memory models are:

1. Sensory Memory Model: This model proposes that sensory memory is the initial stage of memory, which briefly holds incoming sensory information in its raw form (e.g., visual, auditory) before further processing.
2. Short-Term Memory Model: Also known as working memory, this model suggests that short-term memory is a limited-capacity system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for cognitive tasks, with a duration of about 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.
3. Long-Term Memory Model: This model describes long-term memory as the relatively permanent storage system that holds vast amounts of information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely, allowing for the retention of knowledge and experiences over time.
4. Three-Stage Memory Model: Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, this model suggests that memory involves three main stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, each with its own characteristics and processes.

4. Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (ESR) Model vs. a Computer:

• ESR Model: In the ESR model, memory processes are described as encoding (inputting information), storage (retaining information), and retrieval (accessing stored information), mirroring human cognitive processes. Encoding involves converting sensory input into a form that can be stored, storage maintains encoded information over time, and retrieval brings stored information back into conscious awareness.
• Computer: In contrast, computers use a similar process of encoding, storage, and retrieval for data processing but in a more mechanistic manner. Input data is encoded into binary code, stored in digital memory, and retrieved through specific commands or algorithms. While computers can efficiently store and retrieve vast amounts of data, they lack the complex cognitive processes and associations characteristic of human memory, such as emotions, context, and subjective experiences.